Hydroelectricity

Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric power station in Russia

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Image: Vladimir Korolev

Electricity generated by using the gravitational force of falling or flowing water is known as hydroelectricity, and is the most widely used form of renewable energy in the world. Hydroelectric power plants convert this kinetic energy into electricity by forcing water through a hydraulic turbine connected to a generator. Once through the turbine, the water then returns to the body of water below the dam.

Craigside

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Image: Peter-Ashley Jackson

In 1868, the country home of Lord Armstrong in the civil parish of Cartington in Northumberland, England became the first house in the world to be lit using hydroelectric power. A hydraulic engine was installed at Cragside, which powered a hydraulic lift, laundry equipment and a rotisserie. In 1878, a Siemens Dynamo electric generator was installed and powered carbon rod arc lamps in the gallery. The electricity generated by the dynamo traveled along a double lone of Birmingham No.1 gauge copper wire supported by telegraph poles the 1500 yards to the house. Electricity was diverted from this line to a joiner's shop where it ran a sewing machine during the day. In 1880, the arc lamps were replaced by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamps. Swan considered this the first 'proper installation' of electric lighting. The farm buildings were also powered by the generators. 

Cragside in Northumberland, England

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Image: Gail

Cragside, named after Cragend Hill above the house, has been in the care of the National Trust since 1977. Built in 1863, it began as a modest two-story country lodge and grew into an elaborate Free Tudor style mansion. At its peak of grandeur the home even included an astronomical observatory and a scientific laboratory, but it was the harnessing of hydroelectric power that will always be its claim to fame.

Burfell hydroelectric power station in Iceland

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Image: Terry Feuerborn

Hydroelectric plants fall into two categories: large commercial, typically utilizing a dam, and micro turbine, which may be installed on a small stream with an adequate change in elevation to compensate for less water. Hydropower is heavily dependent upon precipitation and elevation changes. Therefore, the mountainous Pacific Northwest is much more conducive to highly productive hydroelectric plants than flatter areas, even along major waterways.

Rally by Klamath Basin Tribes to restore a salmon run

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Image: Patrick McCully

Hydropower has little to no reported air quality impacts, but hydropower dams have an impact on wildlife populations and can cause habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas. Above, Klamath Basin tribes and allies from the commercial fishing and conservation organizations call for the removal of PacifiCorp's four Klamath River dams to restore salmon runs. Hydroelectric structures can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream. Salmon are often prevented access to spawning grounds. Salmon spawn can also be harmed during their migration when they must pass through turbines. Dam failures have created some of the largest man-made disasters in history. In 1975, a series of dams in the Henan Province of China resulted in more casualties than any other dam failure in history. 171,000 people lost their lives and 11 million people lost their homes.

La Colle Falls Hydroelectric Dam in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan

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Image: Jordon Cooper

In 1909, construction began on the La Colle Falls hydroelectric dam in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. However, in 1913 the project was abandoned due to technical difficulties and high costs. To date, it has cost close to 3 million dollars and nearly bankrupted the city. However, when all goes as planned, especially in developing nations, hydroelectric dams can provide an economical source of energy without the purchase of fuel. 

Here Comes the Sun - Solar is King

Solar-powered Muscle Car

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Image: Matthew Hurst

Explosive growth - that's the term currently being bandied about regarding the U.S. solar industry's record-shattering year in 2013, which will no doubt be eclipsed in 2014. A 41% increase over 2012 by GTM Research and Solar Energy Industry Association (SEIA). 2013 came to a close with 440,000 operating solar electric systems across the U.S., bringing totals to more than 12,000 MW of PV and 918 MW of CSP. Solar is officially the fastest-growing source of renewable energy. In the last 18 months, more solar has been installed in the U.S. than in the 30 previous years combined. There are five types of solar panels primarily used in the U.S.

Monocrystalline Silicon (mono-silicon or single silicon)

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Silicon is the chemical element of atomic number 14, a nonmetal with semiconducting properties, used in making electronic circuits. Monocrystalline silicon currently are the most efficient type of solar panels, when sunlight hits these panels, more of it is transformed into electricity than in any other type. The high silicon content also makes them more expensive, but fewer of them are required, making them ideal for rooftops.

Polycrystalline Silicon

24 modules in rural Mongolia

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Image: Wikipedia

These panels have lower silicon levels than mono-silicon panels. Generally, this characteristic makes them more cost-efficient to produce, but they're also slightly less efficient. They're also suitable for rooftops.

Thin Film Amorphous Silicon

Walmart in Mountainview, California

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Image: Walmart

Thin film panels are costly to produce and perform best in very hot climates. Unfortunately, it's not nearly as efficient as the two types of panels previously mentioned. They're better suited for large solar farm projects where land is available and are not used as frequently on rooftops.

BIPV (building integrated photovoltaics)

West Hollywood, California

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BIPVs look similar to roofing tiles, like solar shingles. However, they're more expensive  and less efficient than other types of photovoltaic cells. Also, evidence suggests they may not last as long either.

Solar Hot Water Panels (thermal)

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Image: Jojodia.Saket

Solar thermal panels produce hot water for residential uses such as swimming pools. Some systems may also provide heat and air conditioning. Optimal positioning and adequate air flow must be considered when installing all types of solar panels. Direction, angle and shading of the roof are all equally important factors. As is the fact that Northern Hemisphere rooftop units should be installed facing south, where possible, to maximize sun exposure. 

Next week we'll discuss the benefits of passive solar power.

Nature Deficit Disorder

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Image: Nicholas A. Tonelli

Look inviting? Just ten minutes spent in nature can do wonders for the mind, body and spirit. While it has yet to make it into the DSM-5 or the ICD-10, The nature deficit disorder theory is gaining momentum. Every day more experts seem to agree that our brains and bodies were not designed for sitting indoors, staring at screens and eating processed food. In his 2005 book, Last Child in the Woods, Richard Louv made a strong argument for getting kids back outside to counteract their cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems. According to Louv, the average American child spends 44 hours a week with electronic media, and this is going to affect society in ways we haven't even imagined. Let's not forget anxious adults strung out on Starbucks, commuting from screen to screen while checking their email and texting on their smart phone as they gobble down the latest cereal bar to hit the shelves.

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Image: Algonquin Books

In 2009, a study published in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health revealed living close to nature has a direct impact on our health, as evidenced by over 300,000 Dutch people's medical records. 24 health conditions, including cardiovascular, neurological and respiratory diseases were evaluated in correlation to how much green space was located within 1k and 3k from each person's postal code. Those living within 1k of a park or wooded area experienced less anxiety and depression. Not surprisingly, those living in urban environments had a higher incidence of 15 of the 24 conditions, with anxiety and depression topping the list.

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Image: Linda Dee 2006

Old Order Amish, living a rural life similar to that of 100 years ago, have a depression rate 10% of the national average. According to Dr. Andrew Weil, industrial life is taking its toll. Weil claims depression is a disease of affluence, that the more industrialized and privileged a society is, the more wracked with anxiety, depression and a host of resulting physical ailments they become. With technological advances exploding, we are isolating and becoming more sedentary than ever before. Our emotional and physical health directly reflect these changes in our environment.

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Image: Doug 88888

To counteract all of our synthetic entertainment, information overload, lack of physical activity, dwindling honest-to-goodness social contact and ever-increasing intake of processed food, we must get outside more. Spend some time in the sun to boost your Vitamin D intake. Socialize to laugh, relax, listen and get out of your own head. Go for a walk and eat fresh. Start with ten minutes, here and there. Unplug. Wean yourself from destructive winter hibernation patterns and forgive yourself. It's never too late to change.

Aquaponics

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In traditional soil farming and gardening you use a lot of water and that water usually just runs off. With aquaponics the water never really leaves the area. It brings together two practices: aquaculture, the practice of raising fish in tanks and hydroponics, the practice of growing plants without soil. The fish naturally produce waste which is removed from the tanks, but instead of disposing of the waste it's used as plant food and purified in the process to be used all over again in the fish tanks. This system can be set up on a small scale for individual or residential use, but it can also work on a very large scale commercial operation just as well.

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A recirculating water system allows for water to be circulated, fish to be raised and plants to be grown year round. With aquaponics there is no growing season. Plants can be harvested all year round and can grow for a year before needing replanting. Also, without soil the maintenance costs are lower than traditional gardening and farming, although initial set-up costs are higher. Small operations can be set up in basements and garages, producing the same quality and abundance of food from season to season.

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Tilapia is the most common species of fish used in a recirculating water system. Hybrid Striped Bass, Catfish, Perch and Trout also do well in such environments, but Tilapia is a large and hearty fish which grows rather quickly. They're also tolerant of fluctuating water temperatures, pH and oxygen levels. The nutrient-rich effluent from fish tanks is used to fertigate hydroponic plant beds. The adult fish can also be sold at market. The nutrients from the fish manure, algae and decomposing uneaten fish food which gathers at the bottom of the tanks are transported through pvc pipes to a clarifier or settler. This is where the anaerobic mineralization of the waste takes place and begins to break down, releasing nutrients into the water. Sometimes iron is added to supplement plant nutritional needs. A biofilter then removes large amounts of ammonia from the water. The ammonia is converted to nitrite and nitrate. From there the water is transported via pvc pipes once more to the hydroponic grow beds.

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The hydroponic plant beds then serve as a second biofilter, removing ammonia, nitrates, nitrites and phosphorus which are toxic to the fish. Fluorescent or LED grow lights may be used, LED being the more expensive of the two. However, LED lights last longer and allow you to adjust the light spectrum for the different stages of plant growth. Fluorescent lights provide a nice advantage as they produce little heat. Metal Halide lights may also be used if suspended higher above the plants and with proper ventilation as they do produce significantly more heat. All can be used independently or combined with natural sunlight. The freshly filtered water is then circulated back into the fish rearing tanks. 

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Italian broccoli (above) is just one of many plants that can be grown using aquaponic and/or hydroponic technology. Most leafy greens do very well, as do: flowers, anise, basil, catnip, chamomile, chervil, chives, cilantro, coriander, dill, fennel, lavender, marjoram, mint, oregano, parsley, rosemary, sage, tarragon, thyme and watercress.

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This tomato is a hydroponic product, but aquaponic technology has  also successfully produced: tomatoes, eggplant, cucumbers, green beans, squash, melons, broccoli, cauliflower, bok choy, cabbage, lettuces, spinach, swiss chard, peas, onions and carrots. As we discussed last week, hydroponics plays a key role in vertical farming. Aquaponics will likely be just as important, if not more so. What an exciting time to be alive.

Vertical Farming

Dickson Despommier

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Image: Leapologist

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Dr. Dickson Despommier and his students have really opened our eyes. An ecologist, microbiologist and Professor of Public Health in Environmental Health Sciences at Columbia University, it now seems 73-year old Despommier is just getting started.

In 1999, Despommier developed his concept of vertical farming with a group of frustrated graduate students from a medical ecology class. They'd grown tired of studying parasitism and environmental disruption and wanted to work on something positive and uplifting for a change. What they came up with next was absolutely brilliant.

Source: Google Images

http://www.verticalfarm.com/

The human population is projected to increase by about 3 billion by the year 2050. Approximately 80% of us will reside in urban areas. With over 80% of farmable land currently in use and another 15% deemed unfit for use due to mismanagement, Despommier predicts an impending disaster. How will we feed all those people? 

Two words: vertical farming. It's already happening. Meaning, we're already producing plant life within a high rise greenhouse or on vertically inclined surfaces, allowing the most precise climate control and efficient recycling of soil, water and seeds available.

Shanghai Sustainable Masterplan

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Image: Except Integrated Sustainability

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The above image illustrates Shanghai's ambitious Sustainable Urban Masterplan for a central marketplace surrounded by four vertical farms, or multi-program agricultural towers. Sustainable energy, fresh water and food could be produced for 50,000 people. The lower floors in the center of each structure would serve as community gardens where residents would be free to grow their own plants. 

Shanghai Sustainable Masterplan

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Image: Except Integrated Sustainability

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Okay, so we don't have a high-rise farm quite yet, but it's just around the corner. In the meantime, at least one company is making the most of vertically inclined surfaces. 

In 2009, Valcent's El Paso, Texas lab was already growing plants first on rotating vertical panels, then vertical trays, exposing them to the perfect amount of light, moisture and nutrients. Glen Kertz, then CEO of Valcent, claimed this optimization allowed him to grow up to 15 times as much lettuce per acre as a traditional farm and with only 5% of the water. Valcent now produces 20 times as much per acre as a traditional farm and still uses just 8% of the water. 

Thanks to this technology we can greatly decrease our impact on climate change. Goodbye, chemical-laden fertilizers, carbon-emitting transportation and deforestation. Hello, nutritionally superior and healthier food for people and animals.

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Image: Canadian Veggie

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Valcent President, CEO and Managing Director, Chris Bradford has stated, "We are the only company in the world, at the moment, that has a commercially viable, closed-loop conveyor, vegetable growing system. The number of inquiries we've had from all over the world has been quite phenomenal and indicates there is a lot of recognition out there for the type of technology we offer."

This division of Valcent is now known as Verticrop. Visit www.verticrop.com. Today they grow over 50 varieties of leafy green vegetables with a greater nutritional value and a longer shelf life.

Meanwhile, Dr. Dickson Despommier has gone so far as to design a 30-story vertical farm encompassing an entire city block. This design features transparent walls and would produce enough food for 50,000 people annually. According to Despommier's calculations, 160 of these buildings could feed all of New York. However, the cost would be in the hundreds of millions, making cost the main drawback. But where there's a will, there's a way. In my humble opinion, vertical farming is here to stay.

For more on vertical farming, check out Dr. Despommier's book, The Vertical Farm: Feeding the World in the 21st Century.

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http://www.verticalfarm.com/

Rain Gardens

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Image:  USDA NRCS South Dakota

Rain gardens can be found on rooftops, along roads and trails, surrounding parking lots... just about anywhere there is a desire to collect and better utilize stormwater runoff. The rain garden above was planted in 2012 by South Dakota's Hamlin County Conservation District to filter and collect over 600 gallons of water running off into the storm drains and other waterways every time it rained an inch. A rain garden made up of a wide variety of wild grasses, shrubs, trees and beautiful native wildflowers provides a much better quality of water than a typical well.

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Image: Roger Soh

Rain gardens are planted in shallow depressions with deep-rooted native plants and grasses near a heavy runoff area such as a downspout or a driveway to prevent rain water from running directly into the sewer. They're designed to withstand extreme moisture and nutrient concentrations such as phosphorus and nitrogen. They significantly help reduce water pollution in our communities. A rain garden is a great solution to that skating rink that forms in your yard every winter, downspout water running onto your driveway or even a wet basement.

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Full infiltration rain gardens are implemented when all inflow is intended to infiltrate into the underlying subsoil. Full infiltration with a reservoir has a layer of drain rock so water can move through quickly into the subsoils below. Partial infiltrations are designed to have most of the water infiltrate into the underlying soil with the overflow being drained by perforated pipes placed near the top of the drain rock reservoir. Partial infiltration with flow restrictors are used where subsoil permeability is quite low, around less than 1 mm/hr. The added feature is a flow restrictor assembly with a small opening to gently decant water, causing the rain garden to act like a small water detention facility.

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In addition to lessening pollution, rain gardens offer unique and beautiful landscaping. Furthermore, they provide a friendly habitat for hummingbirds, butterflies and wildlife. Water damage and flooding is also greatly reduced. Last but not least, they recharge the ground water and absorb more water than traditional lawns.

Bioswales

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Image: Aaron Volkening

Bioswales are shallow depressions in the earth designed to gather and redistribute stormwater runoff. They use organic mediums such as soil, sand, compost, vegetation and stones to filter out contaminants. Some are mechanical and some are natural. Others use a combination of natural and mechanical techniques. Removing stormwater pollutants is known as "best management practice", or BMP, and is often a requirement of the Environmental Protection Agency. 

http://www.fernhill-farm.co.uk/

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Wet swales, like the one pictured above on Fernhill Farm in the UK, intersect the groundwater, similar to a linear wetland cell. The design consists of a shallow permanent pool and wetland vegetation to provide stormwater treatment. This one employs several pools. A farm is a more suitable setting for a wet swale as homeowners in residential areas normally do not care for standing water. However, on a farm the water is not only purified, but the swale produces resources such as willow and creates a diverse wildlife habitat. The water is so clear by the time it reaches the last pond in the series, folks have been known to go for a swim.

Pepsi-Cola Bottling Co. in Eugene, Oregon

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Image: Derek Godwin

oregonprogress.oregonstate.edu

Above, grasses, sedges and rocks collect and slow the rainwater, allowing it to seep into the ground below. A dry bioswale like this uses a deep fabricated soil bed in the bottom of the channel. A sand/soil mixture which meets permeable soil requirements is brought in to replace the existing soil. An underdrain system is also incorporated, which is typically a layer of gravel encasing a perforated pipe.

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Image: Darien Library

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When designing a bioswale the most important components to consider are: flow depth, flow velocity, channel bottom width, slope, roughness coefficient and length of the channel. The flow depth should not be taller than the vegetation with a maximum of 4" recommended. The flow velocity should be 1' per second. You need to keep the velocity low enough to provide adequate time within the channel. A 4-5' per second velocity is ideal for 2-year storm events and should not erode the structure. A wider channel bottom provides maximum filtering surface, which prevents flows from concentrating and gullying. In regards to slope you want it steep enough to prevent ponding and shallow enough to regulate velocity. Slopes of 1.0% - 4.0% are recommended. Roughness will vary with the type of vegetation used, but you want to maintain sufficient contact with the plant life to slow the water velocity and provide adequate time for filtering. Ten minutes of residency time is ideal in regards to the length of the channel.

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As stormwater runoff flows through bioswales, pollutants are filtered out by soil and vegetation. The parts of the plants above ground such as stems, leaves and stolons inhibit flow, causing pollutants and particles to settle. The pollutants are incorporated into the soil for immobilization and decomposition. The bacteria present in healthy soils can actually break down carbon-based pollutants such as motor oil.